Chapter 3 Ethics and Finance

3.1 Ethics Foundations

What is ethicsA system for evaluating whether an action is right or wrong.? For our purposes, we define it as a system for evaluating whether an action is right or wrong. For example, consider this following famous thought experiment:

A trolley car is hurtling out-of-control down a track where there are 5 workers ahead. You are standing by a switch that can divert the car onto a side track, where only 1 worker is currently. If you do nothing, the 5 workers will be killed, and if you throw the switch, the 1 worker will be killed (but the 5 will be spared). There is no time to warn the workers or take any other action. Should you throw the switch or not?

Asking this question in a group of individuals is bound to start some (perhaps intense) discussion about whether throwing or not throwing the switch is the right choice. In an ideal world, we would each embrace an ethical framework within which we can evaluate this situation.

There are four main categories of approaches to ethics:

1. Outcome based (consequentialism): the possible outcomes (consequences) of actions are determined, and the most desirable of the outcomes chosen.
2. Universal rules (deontology): the “duty” of the actor is to abide by a governing set of rules.
3. Character based (virtue ethics): how an individual’s actions reflect upon their identity and moral standing drives what is proper.
4. Social norms (pragmatic ethics): behaving in ways acceptable to the bulk of society. Sometimes characterized as, “What would be the reaction if this action was on the front page of the Wall Street Journal?”

To contrast these approaches, consider a friend who has received a terrible haircut asking, “Do you like it?” An outcome based view might support lying, since telling the truth would result in the friend having hurt feelings. Another outcome might be that the truth would make the friend angry, and they might retaliate. Or perhaps telling the truth might convince the friend to visit a different barber.

Instead, one might feel that lying is always wrong, no matter the outcome. Or there might be more complex rules dictating exactly when lying is appropriate.

The third case involves considering the virtue of honesty and the virtue of charity of one’s neighbor. The character of an ideal human must have some balance (neither deficiency nor excess) of these virtues.

Another consideration might be, “What is the socially acceptable thing to do?” If the norm is to lie when someone has received a bad haircut, this might be a guide that can be used to determine proper behavior. It might not be acceptable to lie under oath in a court of law, but society may accept a certain amount of dishonesty.

Within these categories, there are many systems which can be considered, and scholars have debated the merits of each over the centuries. It is the recommendation of the authors, however, that finance managers give some thought to ethics before encountering dilemmas in the workplace; otherwise, it is more likely that one is influenced to pick an ethical system to justify a desired action, when the causality should flow the opposite direction.

3.2 Ethics in Finance

As those who are trained in finance are often in charge of other people’s money, it is important to understand the concept of fiduciary dutyThe requirement to put another’s interests (especially financial) before personal interests., which entails putting another’s interests (especially financial) before personal interests. The other party (the “principal”) is typically at a disadvantage, either in access to information or experience, to the fiduciary, and thus relies upon the good faith of the fiduciary. There are legal definitions of when fiduciary duty exists in the relationship; there exist cases, however, where there is no legal burden but do invlove an ethical burden.

An example: a trader is told that her client would like to sell shares of stock ABC. The client’s order would depress the stock price. It would be a breach of fiduciary duty for the trader to liquidate her position before executing the client’s order (this is also called “front running”).

Consider the possibility of adopting an accounting strategy that would minimize tax payments. On the one hand, this will increase profits for shareholders, but it will also reduce the amount of taxes paid to the government. Does the company have a responsibility to pay taxes to the government, and if so, does it only extend to the letter of the law?

Another scenario involves a company in distress selling off valuable assets to make interest payments to bondholders. A financial manager has a responsibility to pay the bondholders what they are due, while a duty to the shareholders to not cripple the ability of the company to function as a going concern.

In each of these cases, the interests of one party conflict with another’s, and a financial manager will have to determine how to evaluate and resolve the issue. While there can be legal guidance (especially in the case of fiduciary duty), often it will be up to the manager to make the choice he or she deems appropriate.

3.3 Ethics in Management

Similar to fiduciary duty is the concept of agencyA relationship in which one party (the agent) is expected to act on behalf of another party (the principal).: a relationship in which one party (the agent) is expected to act on behalf of another party (the principal). A company’s management, for example, is expected to act on behalf of the board of trustees, who in turn act on behalf of the shareholders.

Unfortunately, there are many documented cases of the agency problemA situation where an agent has incentives to place personal interest over the principal’s., where an agent has incentives to place personal interest over the principal’s. One solution is to try to align the incentives of the agent and principal; performance bonuses and stock grants are two common ways to reward employees directly for creating value for shareholders.

Arguably, this relationship extends further. Each employee has a responsibility to diligently work and fulfill the employment agreement. If a conflict of interest arises, the employee should put personal interests aside or terminate the employment arrangement in a fair manner. Management, however, has a responsibility to the employees as stakeholdersParties affected by the operations of the company. (parties affected by the operations of the company) to balance their interests when making decisions. Many decisions in management involve tradeoffs among stakeholders (which include shareholders) which can rarely be simplified to numbers or a simple good/bad analysis.

Opinions differ on which groups should be considered stakeholders and how their claims should be weighed against one another. The narrowest view endorses maximizing shareholder profit as the dominating factor and only considers stakeholders as far as they can affect profit. For example, a subscriber to this view would choose to protect customers only if they thought doing so would ultimately positively contribute to the wealth of the stockholder. A broader view would include employees, suppliers, customers, investors, communities (and their governments) where the business operates, etc. Even competitors can be considered stakeholders!

In dealing with the balance between stakeholders, we suggest following one very important guideline: that human dignity is paramount. No manager has the right to consider themselves superior to their employees, suppliers, customers, etc. Treating people as a means to an end cannot ultimately be good for business. This might mean considering the rights of customers to use and resell a product or the rights of employees to a just wage for their work. Of course, in more extreme cases, it can mean considering the effects of addictive substances or even slave labor or human trafficking.

Beyond this principle, there is much room for debate about the proper balance of stakeholder concerns. Businesses are very complex, and a comprehensive list of guidelines could not possible cover every situation a manager will experience in his or her career. This is why it is so important to have managers who are willing and able to exercise their own ethical judgment!

3.4 International Considerations

As companies extend their reach across internation boundaries, ethical issues have taken a more prominent position in discourse about the benefit of globalization. Nowhere can the legal vs. ethical divide be more pronounced than when considering international prospects, for what is legal in one jurisdiciton might be illegal in another. As different cultures attempt to work together, different values can emerge on topics such as: fair wages, working hours, child labor, environmental impact, facilitating payments, discrimination in hiring or customer base, etc. Futhermore, companies might make decisions upon where to locate their workforce based upon taxation, labor costs, or regulations.

Being sensitive to cultural differences is a good skill to foster, as attempting to understand the viewpoint of another party can allow for greater collaboration and increased opportunities. Being open to new views and ideas, however, is very different from accepting everything as relative. Many an executive has tried to explain away unethical behavior as “that’s just the way they do business there.” While this might be a completely true statement, this fact alone does not give a company justification for violating ethical principles. Another common trope is “if we left, another company would come in that is even worse.” Choosing the best from among bad options is one thing, whereas it is very hard to support a decision on the grounds of merely being “less unethical”.

3.5 The Bigger Picture

Financial problems often have quantifiable components (such as maximizing return, revenues, or profits, or minimizing expenses or risk) and calculating these accurately is certainly important to the decision making process. Impact upon the “bottom line” is a key consideration, but it is not the only consideration; relying upon one or two numbers to justify a business decision is usually too narrow in scope. Throughout this book, many of our exercises are indeed simplifications, designed to allow a student to focus on one particular aspect of a financial problem. But we encourage students to think beyond the problems as presented and consider how they might appear in a “real world” situation. Discussion with colleagues and instructors can help to illustrate how the techniques we present might be part of a larger management decision with answers that are not as clear cut.

Since ethical considerations pervade everything we do, each following chapter will have a section in “The Bigger Picture” devoted to ethics. While we can in no way be exhaustive in addressing ethical issues, our hope is to, at a minimum, begin the discussion about what is right and just concerning the financial topics we present.

3.6 End-of-Chapter Exercises