This is “Deficiency, Supplementation, and Choices”, section 9.8 from the book An Introduction to Nutrition (v. 1.0). For details on it (including licensing), click here.
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Calcium inadequacy is most prevalent in adolescent girls and the elderly. Proper dietary intake of calcium is critical for proper bone health.
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Despite the wealth of evidence supporting the many health benefits of calcium (particularly bone health), the average American diet falls short of achieving the recommended dietary intakes of calcium. In fact, in females older than nine years of age, the average daily intake of calcium is only about 70 percent of the recommended intake. Here we will take a closer look at particular groups of people who may require extra calcium intake.
If you are lactose intolerant, have a milk allergy, are a vegan, or you simply do not like dairy products, remember that there are many plant-based foods that have a good amount of calcium (see Note 9.28 "Tools for Change" in Section 9.3 "Micronutrients Essential for Bone Health: Calcium and Vitamin D" and Table 9.2 "Nondairy Dietary Sources of Calcium") and there are also some low-lactose and lactose-free dairy products on the market.
Getting informed about the risks and benefits of calcium supplementation is important.
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Many people choose to fulfill their daily calcium requirements by taking calcium supplements. Calcium supplements are sold primarily as calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, calcium lactate, and calcium phosphate, with elemental calcium contents of about 200 milligrams per pill. It is important to note that calcium carbonate requires an acidic environment in the stomach to be used effectively. Although this is not a problem for most people, it may be for those on medication to reduce stomach-acid production or for the elderly who may have a reduced ability to secrete acid in the stomach. For these people, calcium citrate may be a better choice. Otherwise, calcium carbonate is the cheapest. The body is capable of absorbing approximately 30 percent of the calcium from these forms.
There is public health concern about the lead content of some brands of calcium supplements, as supplements derived from natural sources such as oyster shell, bone meal, and dolomite (a type of rock containing calcium magnesium carbonate) are known to contain high amounts of lead. In one study conducted on twenty-two brands of calcium supplements, it was proven that eight of the brands exceeded the acceptable limit for lead content. This was found to be the case in supplements derived from oyster shell and refined calcium carbonate. The same study also found that brands claiming to be lead-free did, in fact, show very low lead levels. Because lead levels in supplements are not disclosed on labels, it is important to know that products not derived from oyster shell or other natural substances are generally low in lead content. In addition, it was also found that one brand did not disintegrate as is necessary for absorption, and one brand contained only 77 percent of the stated calcium content.Ross, E. A., N. J. Szabo, and I. R. Tebbett. “Lead Content of Calcium Supplements.” JAMA 2000 Sep 20; 284 (2000): 1425–33.
In general, calcium supplements perform to a lesser degree than dietary sources of calcium in providing many of the health benefits linked to higher calcium intake. This is partly attributed to the fact that dietary sources of calcium supply additional nutrients with health-promoting activities. It is reported that chelated forms of calcium supplements are easier to absorb as the chelation process protects the calcium from oxalates and phytates that may bind with the calcium in the intestines. However, these are more expensive supplements and only increase calcium absorption up to 10 percent. In people with low dietary intakes of calcium, calcium supplements have a negligible benefit on bone health in the absence of a vitamin D supplement. However, when calcium supplements are taken along with vitamin D, there are many benefits to bone health: peak bone mass is increased in early adulthood, BMD is maintained throughout adulthood, the risk of developing osteoporosis is reduced, and the incidence of fractures is decreased in those who already had osteoporosis. Calcium and vitamin D pills do not have to be taken at the same time for effectiveness. But remember that vitamin D has to be activated and in the bloodstream to promote calcium absorption. Thus, it is important to maintain an adequate intake of vitamin D.
A recent study published in the British Medical Journal reported that people who take calcium supplements at doses equal to or greater than 500 milligrams per day in the absence of a vitamin D supplement had a 30 percent greater risk for having a heart attack.Bolland, M. J. et al. “Effect of Calcium Supplements on Risk of Myocardial Infarction and Cardiovascular Events: Meta-Analysis.” Br Med J 341, no. c3691 (July 29, 2010). Does this mean that calcium supplements are bad for you? If you look more closely at the study, you will find that 5.8 percent of people (143 people) who took calcium supplements had a heart attack, but so did 5.5 percent of the people (111) people who took the placebo. While this is one study, several other large studies have not shown that calcium supplementation increases the risk for cardiovascular disease. While the debate over this continues in the realm of science, we should focus on the things we do know:
There are many proponents of low-phosphate diets for bone health. Scientific studies do provide evidence that diets consisting of a high intake of processed foods and cola beverages compromise bone health as well as increase the prevalence of obesity. Overall however, the data is inconsistent to show whether it is the phosphate content that is the culprit. The mechanism by which diets high in phosphate could cause a decrease in bone health is the following: a high dietary intake of phosphate leads to an increase in blood phosphate levels. High levels of phosphate in the blood stimulate the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH), which in turn stimulates bone resorption and calcium is lost from the bone. When calcium intake is adequate, it shuts off PTH release, but when calcium intake is inadequate and phosphate intake is high, bone health suffers. How much it suffers is under a considerable amount of debate in the scientific literature. It is a good idea to eat foods that are good sources for both calcium and phosphorus. Table 9.6 "Calcium and Phosphorus Contents in 100 Grams of Certain Foods" shows the calcium and phosphorus contents in certain foods.
While the scientific community debates the effects of phosphate, we do know that carbonated cola beverages have negative effects on bone health. A study published in the Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine reports that teenage girls who were physically active and drank carbonated cola beverages were five times more likely to break a bone than physically active girls who did not drink carbonated beverages.Wyshak, G. “Teenaged Girls, Carbonated Beverage Consumption, and Bone Fractures.” Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 154 (2000): 610–13. http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/154/6/610?ijkey=d457e7f399850f63fdb8ee9ff3c3a61afcf3e352 The Beverage Guidance Panel, headed by Dr. Barry Popkin from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, recommends drinking not more than one 8-ounce carbonated soft drink per day. A bone-healthy diet is one that does not replace milk and high calcium snacks with carbonated soft drinks and processed foods.
To decrease cola consumption try replacing sugary processed cola drinks with a nice cold glass of your favorite herbal tea.
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Evidence has been uncovered recently indicating that lactose-free diets result in decreased calcium absorption because dietary lactose has been shown to actually enhance calcium absorption. Thus, lactose intolerance (and lactose-free diets) may predispose one to inadequate bone mineralization, an issue now correlated to many other disorders involving pediatric patients. Researchers are still working to clarify the effects of lactose-free diets in youth on long-term bone mineral content and the risks of osteoporosis and bone fractures with aging. Calcium homeostasis is also affected by protein intake, vitamin D status,Holick, MF. Ann Epidemiol. 2009 Feb;19(2):73–8. Epub 2008 Mar 10.NIH Public Access: “Vitamin D Status: Measurements, Interpretations, and Clinical Application.” http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18329892. salt intake, and genetic and other factors, making long-term studies critical in determining the risks of each or all of these to bone health. Recent studies also indicate that in the future, genetic testing may be appropriate for spotting people who may be at a higher risk of lactase deficiency and subsequent decreased BMD. This may enable early intervention through dietary modification or supplementation.Heyman, M. B., MD, MPH. “Lactose Intolerance in Infants, Children, and Adolescents.” Pediatrics 118, no. 3 (September 1, 2006): 1279–86. doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-1721.
In your effort to maintain proper bone health, and prevent and treat osteoporosis, you will need to eat a balanced diet of foods that contain not only calcium and vitamin D, but also the other important bone-building nutrients. You will also need to employ physical exercise habits to encourage bone activity, such as remodeling. By consuming foods rich in bone-building materials on a daily basis, you can reduce your need for supplementation. However, if you cannot get the required amounts of calcium you need through diet alone, there are inexpensive, safe, and effective calcium supplements to choose from. As with anything you choose to consume or with any activity that you choose to undertake, supplementation, diet, and exercise should be uniquely tailored to your circumstances.
Visit the websites below and come up with your own opinion on whether carbonated cola beverages increase the risk of developing osteoporosis. Discuss with your classmates what evidence is lacking. What do you and your classmates think about the position of The Coca-Cola Company Beverage Institute? Do they make a good argument? Can you counter it with better scientific evidence?
http://www.medpagetoday.com/Endocrinology/Osteoporosis/4247